Maxay yihiin carbohydrates doorka of carbohydrates ee jirka aadanaha

kiimikaad ee unugyada samaynta kor noolaha ugu horrayn waxay ku xiran tahay tirada atamka carbon kor dhismaha 50% by miisaanka oo qalalan. atamka Carbon waa walxaha ugu weyn organic: borotiinada, acids nucleic, subaga iyo carbohydrates. Kooxdu waxay ugu dambaysta waxaa ka mid ah xarunta carbonyl iyo biyo u dhiganta caanaha (CH ₂ O) _n, halkaas oo n waa siman yahay ama uu ka badan saddex weyn. Ka sokow carbon, hydrogen iyo oxygen, in Britain ay ka mid noqon kara fosfooraska, nitrogen, baaruud. In this article, waxaan baari doorka carbohydrates ee jirka aadanaha, iyo sidoo kale astaamaha ay qaab-dhismeedka, guryaha iyo shaqooyinka.

kala soocidda

Kooxdaan xeryahooda ee Kiimikada noole kala qaybsan yihiin saddex darajo: sonkor fudud (monosaccharides), xeryahooda polymeric la xirid ah glycosidic - oligosaccharides iyo biopolymers ah oo miisaankiisu sare kelli - polysaccharides. The fasalada kor ku xusan oo ah walaxda laga helay noocyada unugyada kala duwan. Tusaale ahaan, waxaa jira glucose iyo istaarijka ee qaab-dhismeedka geedka, glycogen - in hepatocytes aadanaha, oo derbiyadeeda cell fangaska, chitin ah - in ay cayayaanka lafaha dibadda ah. Dhammaan oo ka mid ah walxaha ku xusan - yihiin carbohydrates. Doorka carbohydrates ee jidhku waa universal. Waxay - qeybiyaha weyn ee tamarta ah habka muhiimka ah ee warshadda unugyada, bakteeriyada, xayawaanka iyo bini'aadanka.

monosaccharides

Qaacidada C _n H _{2 n} O _n guud iyo kala qaybsan yihiin kooxo ku xiran tahay tirada atamka carbon ee Britain ayaa ah: trioses, tetroses, pentoses, iyo wixii la mid ah. Iyadoo qayb ka ah organelles cell iyo cytoplasm sonkor fudud waxay leeyihiin laba gaadmada ah da'ayeen: toosan oo wareeg ah. Xaaladda hore, atamka carbon ay ku xiran yihiin midba midka kale via bonds covalent li'idiisa iyo foomka la xiray siddo, in kiiska labaad lafaha carbon aan la xidhay oo laga yaabaa in branching. Si loo go'aamiyo waxa doorka carbohydrates ee jirka, fiirsan ugu badan oo iyaga ka mid ah - pentose iyo hexose.

Isomers: glucose iyo fructose

Waxay leeyihiin caanaha isla kelli C ₆ H ₁₂ O _6, laakiin noocyada kala duwan ee u taagoo dhismaha. Waxaan horey u yeedhay doorka aasaasiga ah ee carbohydrates in noolaha - tamarta. Walxaha ku xusan waa la dumiyey by gacanta. Natiijadu waxay tahay in la sii daayo a tamarta (17.6 KJ mid garaam of glucose). Intaas waxaa sii dheer, 36 taagoo of ATP uu ku dhexsameeysmo jirka. daatay glucose dhacdaa on xuubka (cristae) mitochondria iyo wakiil ka silsilad ah oo dareen diidmo enzymatic - wareegga Krebs ah. Isagu waa qayb muhiim ah oo dissimilation dal in dhammaan unugyada noolaha eukaryotic heterotrophic.

Glucose waxaa sidoo kale la aasaasay myocytes in nuujiya sabab u qaybsama ee glycogen muruqa. In mustaqbalka, waxaa loo isticmaalaa sida walax si fudud decomposable sida bixinta unugyada tamarta - taasi waa doorka ugu weyn ee carbohydrates ee jirka. Geedaha waa phototrophs iyo si madax banaan u sameeyaan glucose inta lagu guda jiro photosynthesis. Dareen-celinta waxaa lagu magacaabaa wareegga Calvin. Qoraalkani wuxuu ku bilaabo waa carbon dioxide iyo aqbalana - ribolozodifosfat. Avv of glucose dhacdaa furta chloroplast ah. Fructose, isagoo formula isla kelli sida sonkorta, waxaa ku jira in Britain ay koox functional of ketones. Waxay ka macaan sonkorta, iyo waxa ku sugan malabka iyo casiirka ee berry iyo miraha. Sidaas darteed, doorka noolaha ee carbohydrates ee jirka ku been ugu horayn in ay la isticmaalo sida il deg deg ah ee tamarta.

Doorka hiddo in pentose ah

Ha ka fikiro si aynu koox kale oo monosaccharides - ribose iyo deoxyribose. Ay la aqonsado been in xaqiiqda ah in ay qayb ka mid ah polymers yihiin - acids nucleic. Maxaa yeelay, dhammaan noolaha, oo ay ku jiraan noocyada nolosha aan gacanta, DNA iyo RNA waa sidayaal ugu weyn ee macluumaadka la iska dhaxlo. Ribose waxaa ka mid ahaa in Britain RNA iyo nucleotides deoxyribose ku jira DNA. Sidaa darteed, doorka noolaha ee carbohydrates ee jidhka bini'aadamka waa in ay gacan ku leeyihiin dhismaha cutub oo hiddo - hiddo iyo koromosoomyada.

pentose lagu dayan karo oo ay ku jiraan group aldehyde ah oo baahsan boqortooyada geedka waa xylose (ku jira laamo iyo miraha), Alfa-arabinose (kaydiyaa ciridka geedo waaweyn oo midho dhagax). Sayidka, qaybinta iyo doorka noolaha ee carbohydrates ee jirka ka mid ah dhirta sare waa weyn oo ku filan.

Waa maxay oligosaccharides

Haddii harta ah u taagoo of monosaccharides, sida sonkorta ama fructose, lala by bonds covalent, ka oligosaccharides sameeyay - carbohydrates polymeric. Doorka carbohydrates ee jirka ka mid ah dhirta iyo xayawaanka labada kala duwanaayeen. Tani waa run gaar ah disaccharides. The ugu iyaga ka mid ah waxay kala yihiin sucrose, lactose, maltose iyo trehalose. Sayidka, sucrose, sidoo kale loo yaqaano bakoorad ama dabocase sonkorta, ku jira dhirta sida xal iyo kaydiyaa galay xidido ama jirridaha. Hydrolysis ee Britain ayaa sameeyay of glucose iyo fructose. sonkorta caanaha, lactose waa isir xoolaadka ah. Dadka qaarkood, waxaa jira dulqaad inay maal this la xidhiidha hyposecretion enzyme lactase, taas oo hoos u jebiya galactose sonkorta caanaha iyo glucose. Doorka nolosha ee u shaqeeyo carbohydrates kala duwan. Tusaale ahaan, trehalose disaccharide ah, oo ka kooban laba harta glucose, qayb ka mid ah hemolymph ee crustaceans, caarada, cayayaanka. Waxaa sidoo kale dhacda in unugyada fangaska iyo qaar ka mid ah algae.

disaccharide kale - maltose, ama sonkorta malt, waxaa ku jira caryopses oo shaciir ah ama galley ee ay biqilka, waa Britain ayaa ka kooban laba harta glucose. Waxaa la aasaasay by suuska ee cuntada ama xayawaan noqde. In xiidmaha yar oo dadka iyo nuujiya maltose dhegay by eulayska - maltase. In ay ka maqan in juice ganaca ayaa u muuqda cudurada uu keeno-diid si ay u istaarijka cunto glycogen ama khudradda alaabta. Xaaladdan oo kale, cunto gaar ah oo lagu daraa cunto ee enzyme laftiisa.

carbohydrates Complex ee dabiiciga ah

Waxay aad u baahsan yihiin, gaar ahaan dunida khudradda, waa biopolymers iyo haysataa miisaan sare kelli. Tusaale ahaan, istaarijka waa 800 000, iyo saxarka - 1 600 000. polysaccharides The kala duwan ee ka kooban oo ka mid ah monomers, degree polymerization, iyo silsilad dhererka. Marka la barbardhigo sonkor fudud oo oligosaccharides kuwaas oo diyaar milma biyaha iyo leedahay dhadhan macaan, polysaccharides hydrophobic iyo Faylasha. Tixgeli kaalinta carbohydrates ee jirka aadanaha oo tusaale u ah glycogen - istaarijka xayawaanka. Waxa uu ku dhexsameeysmo ka glucose iyo ku hayaa hepatocytes iyo unugyada muruqa lafaha, halkaas oo ay ka kooban tahay waa laba jeer ka badan tahay beerka. By formation of glycogen ayaa sidoo kale awood u baruurta subcutaneous, neurocytes iyo macrophages. polysaccharide kale - noqde cuntada waa wax soo saarka ee photosynthesis iyo la soo saaray ee plastids ee cagaaran.

Laga soo bilaabo bilowga ugu horreeya ee ilbaxnimada aadanaha, qalabka ugu weyn ee istaarijka ahaayeen dalagyada qiimo leh, bariis, baradho, hadhuudh. Weli waa ku saleysan cunto ah tirada ugu badan ee dadka on Earth. Taasi waa sababta ay carbohydrates si qiimo leh. Doorka carbohydrates ee jirka ku jira waa, sida aan soo aragnay, in codsigooda sidii arrinta organic awood-gaajaysan oo si deg deg ah digestible ah.

Waxaa jira koox ka mid ah polysaccharides kuwaas oo monomers harta acid hyaluronic. Waxay yihiin yeedhay pectins iyo waa qalabka dhismaha unugyada geedka. Gaar ahaan hodan iyaga oo ku tufaax diirka, saxarka dabocase. walxaha gacanta pectins nidaaminaya cadaadis intracellular - turgor. In warshadaha macmacaanka ah, waxay waxaa loo isticmaalaa sida gelling iyo dhagid wakiilada ee wax soo saarka ee kala duwan oo tayo sare leh marshmallow oo jelly. cuntada loo isticmaalo sida walxaha bayoloji firfircoon si fiican deducing sunta ka xiidanka.

Waa maxay glycolipids

Waa koox xiiso leh xeryahooda adag of carbohydrates iyo dufanka ku jira unugyada dareemayaasha. Waxay ka kooban tahay maskaxda iyo laf-dhabarta of nuujiya. Glycolipids ayaa sidoo kale laga helay Halabuurka ee xuubka unug. Tusaale ahaan, bakteeriyada ay ku lug leeyihiin xiriiro cell-cell. Qaar ka mid ah xeryahooda waa in cudur (walxaha in la ogaado habka koox dhiig Landsteiner AB0). In unugyada xoolaha, dhirta iyo Insiba leh, marka laga reebo glycolipids, joogaan oo kala duwan u taagoo baruurta. Wayna oofiyaan horrayn function tamarta. Marka cholesterol mid garaam xaydha 38,9 KJ tamarta la sii daayay. shaqo dhisme (qayb ka mid ah xuub gacanta) si ay subaga ayaa sidoo kale lagu gartaa. Sidaas darteed, hawlahaas waxaa lagu sameeyaa by carbohydrates iyo dufanka. Kaalintooda ee jirka waa mid aad u sarreeya.

Doorka carbohydrates iyo subaga ee jirka

In unugyada dadka iyo xoolaha oo laga dheehan karo interconversions of polysaccharides iyo dufanka ka dhaca iyadoo ay sabab u shiid. Qubarada iyo nafaqada lagu ogaaday in qaadashada xad-dhaafka ah ee cuntooyinka adag keenaysaa in raasamaal baruurta. Haddii qofku qabo cudurada ganaca eego go'doomin ama amylase keenaysaa qaab nololeed yah, oo miisaankeedu yahay waxaa laga yaabaa in aad u ballaaran. Waxaa haboon in la xasuusnaado in cuntada carbohydrate-hodanka ah waa la dumiyey inta badan ee malawadka galay glucose. Waxay nuugo qalintaanka of villi ee xiidmaha yar oo shubo ee beerka iyo murqaha sida glycogen. Suuqa ayaa ka badan oo degdeg ah walxaha ee jirka, ayaa in ka badan waxaa loo kala qaybiyey glucose. waxaa ka dibna loo isticmaalo sida unugyada aasaasiga ah, wax ku firfircoon. Warbixintan waxay jawaab su'aasha ah ee doorka ka ciyaaray by carbohydrates, jidhka bini'aadamka.

Taasoo la micno ah ee glycoproteins

Xeryahooda ee kooxdan oo ah walxaha wakiil carbohydrate ah oo adag + protein. Waxay yihiin yeedhay glycoconjugates. Tani antibody, hormoono, xuub-dhismeedka. Latest waxbarashada lagmamaarmaanna ku adkeeyey in haddii glycoproteins bilaabaan inay badasho hooyo (dabiiciga ah) Qaab-dhismeedka, waxay u horseeddaa horumarka ka mid ah kuwan cudurada adag sida neefta, rheumatoid arthritis, kansarka. Doorka glycoconjugates in dheef ah ee gacanta waa heer sare ah. Tusaale ahaan, interferons joogsada dhufashada ee fayrasyada, immunoglobulins jidhka difaaco wareer ah. borotiinka dhiigga sidoo kale ka tirsan kooxdan oo ah walxaha. Waxay bixiyaan guryaha ilaalinta iyo naqdida. Dhammaan oo ka mid ah hawlaha kor ku xusan waxaa la xaqiijiyay by xaqiiqada ah in doorka nafsaaniga ah ee carbohydrates ee jidhku waa kala duwan oo aad u muhiim ah.

Halkee iyo sidee carbohydrates loo sameeyay

qeybiyeyaasha Major sonkor fudud oo adag - dhirta cagaaran, algae, spore sare, gymnosperms iyo ubax. oo dhan waxay ku jiraan unugyada chlorophyll Midabka. Isagu waa qayb ka mid ah thylakoid ah - dhismeedka of chloroplasts. saynisyahan Ruush ka Timiryazev bartay geedi socodka ee photosynthesis, taasoo keentay in carbohydrates dhismaha. Doorka carbohydrates ee jirka ka mid ah warshadda waa raasamaal istaarijka midhaha, miraha iyo nalalka, ie, ee xubnaha daaqsinka. farsamo photosynthesis waa halkii adag iyo ka kooban yahay taxane ah oo dareen diidmo enzymatic in dhacaan labadaba nuurka iyo gudcurka ku. Glucose uu ku dhexsameeysmo ka carbon dioxide hoos tallaabada of falgalka. organisms Heterotrophic isticmaalaan dhirta cagaaran sida il of cuntada iyo tamarta. Hadaba, waxa dhirta waa link ugu horeysay oo dhan silsilado cuntada iyo waxaa loo yaqaan soo saarayaasha.

The unugyada carbohydrates noolaha heterotrophic dhexsameeysmo channels siman (agranular) reticulum endoplasmic. Kolkaasay waxay ku waxaa loo isticmaalaa sida qalab tamarta iyo dhismaha. In unugyada dhirta carbohydrates intaa sameeyay Golgi ah, ka dibna ay u sameynta derbi cell cellulosic tagaan. In geeddi-socodka of vertebrates xoolaha xarunta dheefshiidka hodan ku carbohydrates, qayb ahaan la dumiyey in afka iyo caloosha. dissimilation Main isku dareen diidmo ka dhaca malawadka. in Cuskada sida ay u taagan juice ganaca ku jirto enzyme amylase noqde in glucose. Sida ayaa hore la yidhi, glucose nuugo galay dhiigga ku jira xiidmaha yar oo lagu dul fidiyey unugyada oo dhan. Halkan waxa loogu adeegsaday sida il tamar iyo wax dhisme ah. Tani waxay fasireysaa doorka ay carbohydrates ciyaaro ee jirka.

Nadmembrannye kaxeynayo unugyada heterotrophic

Waxay caan ah ee xoolaha iyo fangaska. Halabuurka kiimikada iyo ururka kelli dhismayaasha kuwan waxaa wakiil ka xeryahooda sida subaga, borotiinada iyo carbohydrates. Doorka carbohydrates ee jirka - waxaa ku lug -shiid tamarta iyo dhismaha xuubka. In unugyada dadka iyo xoolaha leedahay qayb gaar ah dhismaha loo yaqaan glycocalyx. Tani waxay daaha dusha khafiif ah oo ka kooban glycolipids iyo glycoproteins la xidhiidha xuub cytoplasmic. Waxay bixisaa xiriir toos ah la baxsan unugyada. Halkan yimaado aragtida ah ku meersan iyo dheefshiidka extracellular. Sababo la unugyada qolof carbohydrate ay ku dhegeen kasta oo kale oo la xirrira dhar ah. Tani waxay ifafaale waxaa lagu magacaabaa Amda. Waxaan sidoo kale ku dar in "dabo" ee u taagoo carbohydrate helay dushiisa cell oo waxa la faray in dheecaan interstitial.

koox kale oo noolaha heterotrophic - qalab fangaska kale oo uu leeyahay dusha a, wuxuu u yeedhay derbiga unug. Waxaa ka mid ah sonkor adag - chitin, glycogen. Qaar ka mid ah fangaska ayaa sidoo kale ku jira carbohydrates milma sida trehalose, loo yaqaan sonkorta likaha.

In xoolaha unicellular sida ciliates, lakabka dusha - pellicle kale oo ku jira kaxeynayo oligosaccharide la borotiinada iyo subaga. pellicle fudud Qaar ka mid khafiif ah oo ku filan oo aan lagaga hortagi isbedelka qaab jirka. Laakiin qaar kale waxay adkaanayo oo uu noqdo xoog badan yahay sida hubkiisa, siday shaqo ka ilaaliya.

derbiga unug Plant

Waxa kale oo ku jira xaddi badan oo carbohydrates, gaar ahaan cellulose ururiyay sida xidhmo xidhmo isugu macdantaa. dhismayaasha Kuwani u sameeyaan jir ah, Hawiyaha shax Kolloidol. Waxay ka kooban tahay ugu horrayn of oligosaccharides iyo polysaccharides. derbiyada gacanta unugyada cuntada lignificated karo. Xaaladdan oo kale, meelaha u dhexeeya alwaaxdii saqafka haysay waxaa ka buuxa carbohydrates kale cellulose - lignin. Waxa ay wanaajisaa shaqada taageeraya dahaarka gacanta. Inta badan, gaar ahaan dhirta ligneous dilka ah, lakabka sare oo ka kooban cellulose dahaarka walax xaydha-sida - suberin. Waxay ka hortagtaa ingress biyaha galay unugyada warshadda, sidaas oo kale ayaa unugyada ku lammaan si degdeg ah u dhinto off iyo daboolay lakabka ah ee guf.

In kooban, waxaan aragnaa in derbiga unugyada dhirta yihiin carbohydrates xidhiidh dhow iyo dufanka. Doorkooda phototrophs jidhka dhayalsan tan iyo kaxeynayo glycolipid siiyaan shaqo ah ku taageeraya iyo difaaca. Waxaan ku baran doonaa noocyo kala duwan oo carbohydrates, gaar ah inuu boqortooyada Monera ee noolaha. Tan waxaa ka mid prokaryotes, sida bakteeriyada. derbiga gacanta ku jira carbohydrate ah - murein. Iyadoo ku xiran qaab-dhismeedka dusha of qalab ah wuxuu u qaybsan yahay bakteeriyada Gram-positive iyo garaam-negative.

Qaab-dhismeedka kooxda labaad waa ka sii adag. Bakteeriyada waxay leeyihiin laba layers: caag ah oo adag. marka hore waxaa ku jira mucopolysaccharides, tus murein. taagoo ay leeyihiin qaab dhismeedka network weyn, la xirrira kaabsal ku wareegsan gacanta bakteeriyada. Lakabka labaad ka kooban yahay peptidoglycan - polysaccharides xarunta iyo borotiinada.

lipopolysaccharides derbiga unug u ogolaan bakteeriyada si adag u hoggaansamaan muhashada kala duwan, sida dhaldhalaalka iliga ama xuub gacanta eukaryotic. Intaa waxaa dheer, glycolipids kor Amda unugyada bakteeriyada midba midka kale. Sayidka sameeyay, tus, ✰Malax mid streptococci silsilad cluster, weliba, noocyada qaar ka mid ah prokaryotes leeyihiin xabka oo dheeraad ah - peplos. Waxaa ku jira ee ay ka kooban polysaccharides iyo si fudud burburiyey shucaaca adag ama taabashada kiimikooyinka qaarkood sida antibiyootikada.